“
“Monocyte activation, triggering their adhesion to the endothelium Pictilisib molecular weight and subsequent migration into the arterial intima, is an early event in atherogenesis [1], [2], [3] and [4]. Transformation into lipid-engorged macrophage foam cells follows, and leads to the appearance of fatty streaks, the first visible lesions in the vessel wall. Uptake of oxLDL by monocyte/macrophages is known to play a significant role in atherogenesis by stimulation of the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and other factors [5], but there is now considerable evidence to indicate that chylomicron remnants (CMR), the lipoproteins which transport fat of dietary

origin from the gut to the liver, are also strongly atherogenic [6]. Lipids from food are absorbed in the gut and secreted into lymph in large, triacylglycerol (TG)-rich lipoproteins called chylomicrons which then pass into the blood via the thoracic duct. Here they undergo rapid lipolysis, a process that removes some of their TG and forms the smaller CMR which deliver the remaining TG, cholesterol and other lipids to the liver [7]. Chylomicron remnants are taken up and retained in the artery wall [8] and [9], and remnant-like particles have been

isolated from the neointima of human atherosclerotic plaque and in animal models of atherosclerosis [10] and [11]. Delayed clearance of CMR correlates with the development of atherosclerotic lesions, and is associated with consumption of Western diets, obesity and type 2 diabetes [12] and [13]. Data from this laboratory and others has demonstrated that HER2 inhibitor CMR are taken up by human macrophages derived from the human monocyte cell line THP-1 or from macrophages derived from freshly isolated monocytes [14] and [15] inducing foam cell formation [16], expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism [17] and modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression [18] and [19]. Furthermore, CMR inhibit endothelium-dependent relaxation of isolated arteries [8], [20] and [21], CYTH4 and trigger pro-inflammatory signal transduction in human endothelial cells (EC; [22]). Monocytes are the precursors of macrophage foam cells and thus have a crucial

role in atherogenesis. Under inflammatory conditions, activation of both monocytes and EC triggers expression of adhesion molecules, cytokines and vasoactive mediators and promotes monocyte adhesion to the endothelium and subsequent migration into the arterial wall [1], [2] and [4]. The potential role of dietary fats in pro-inflammatory activation of circulating monocytes has not been explored experimentally, but TG-mediated expression of CD11b/Mac-1 has been reported after oral fat loading in normal healthy human volunteers [23] and [24]. Oxidative burst or reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation is a hallmark of monocyte activation and uptake of oxLDL by monocytes or monocyte-derived macrophages is known to be accompanied by ROS production [25].