We should point out that TSLP can also activate mast cells find more [63]. Enterocytes also produce high amounts of TGF-β[64]. This cytokine functions by inhibiting the activity of NF-κB on the promoters of proinflammatory genes in macrophages and DCs [65]. Together with TSLP, TGF-β induces a tolerogenic phenotype in myeloid-derived

DCs in vitro[66]. TGF-β produced by DCs promotes a Th3 regulatory phenotype in some naive T cells in MLN [67]. TGF-β is also present in human milk [68], and rodent enterocytes have TGF-β receptors [69]. TGF-β is involved in suppressing inflammatory responses in the neonatal gut and in consolidating the barrier function of the intestinal mucosa [70,71]. Enterocytes also influence antibody production in the intestinal mucosa; through TSLP secretion, enterocytes promote B cell activating factor (BAFF) and APRIL (a proliferation inducing

ligand) production by adjacent DCs and class-switching of B cells towards the production of sIgA [72,73]. APRIL synthesis is initiated after bacterial stimulation of TLR-4 [74] and results in IgA2 production, an isoform of IgA which is more resistant to proteolysis [75]. After synthesis, sIgA translocates to the intestinal lumen via pIgR; once in the gut lumen, sIgA acts in favour of decreasing the antigenic pressure generated by food and microbes on the mucosa. Among intraepithelial cells, M cells and enterocytes are capable of mediating the encounter between antigens within the gut lumen and DCs. M cells are dedicated to this function, selleck kinase inhibitor differing from normal

enterocytes which are only secondarily involved in antigen presentation. M cells are located above Peyer’s patches (PP) in the small intestine and in close contact with luminal antigens, due to reduced glycocalyx and mucin secretion. They have a particular morphology that allows them to promote uptake and Endonuclease transport of luminal content to professional antigen-presenting cells present in Peyer’s patches and lymphoid follicles. M cells possess fewer lysosomes [76], probably indicating a low intracellular antigen degradation, and are present mainly in the small bowel, but also in the colon, rectum or respiratory tract [77]. They are very low in number, counting for only one cell for every 10 million normal enterocytes. Human and mouse M cells express important PRRs, such as TLR-4, platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) and α5b1 integrin [78]. These molecules, belonging to the innate immune system, recognize PAMPs and mediate translocation of bacteria across the epithelium. Jejunal M cells express major histocompatiblity complex (MHC)-II and contain acidic endosomal and prelysosomal structures, indicating that they are able of presenting endocytosed antigens to lymphocytes [79]. It is noteworthy that colonic M cells do not express MHC-II antigens, suggesting that they may not present antigen [80].