, 2007) so all of the potential presynaptic cells of a certain subtype can be probed, providing a comprehensive account of connectivity probability. HSP inhibitor cancer Exciting technological advances lie ahead. This technique would be made even more influential by the added functionality of measuring relative synaptic strengths. The net effect of a population of neurons depends heavily on the strengths of its connections and subtle gradients in the synaptic strength matrix can underlie starkly different network behaviors.

Here, the binary results of Fino and Yuste (2011) demonstrate the maximum possible connectivity in the network because very weakly connected interneurons may not be able to induce inhibitory responses in postsynaptic pyramidal cells during physiological states in vivo. Thus, only a subset of the existing dense connections of interneurons to a given pyramidal cell may serve to modulate pyramidal cell output and it would be very useful to have this information embedded in our maps of synaptic Z-VAD-FMK cost connectivity. Another useful extension of the present work would be to combine it with calcium imaging that would enable the rapid

identification of all neurons postsynaptic to an interneuron targeted with glutamate uncaging. By categorizing the subtypes of these postsynaptic neurons, for example by post hoc immunostaining (Kerlin et al., 2010), this method could potentially provide a remarkably complete map of inhibitory connections. Furthermore, combined

glutamate uncaging and calcium imaging would be useful for circuits with a high degree of recurrent connectivity such as layer 2/3 cortex as it would be advantageous to be able to rapidly examine bidirectionality of connections. The ever-increasing array of optical, genetic, and electrophysiological tools will allow comprehensive, high-resolution functional maps of synaptic connections for different cortical layers, cortical regions, and species to soon lie within our reach. “
“Primary cilia were definitively identified in the vertebrate nervous system several decades ago, principally using electron microscopy (EM). Reports of primary cilia extending from neuroepithelial found progenitor cells into the lumen of the neural tube (Duncan, 1957 and Sotelo and Trujillo-Cenoz, 1958) were followed by descriptions of primary cilia on neurons and glia (Dahl, 1963, Karlsson, 1966, Palay, 1960 and Peters et al., 1976), and by the early eighties the prevailing view was that virtually all neurons are ciliated (Wheatley, 1982). The elegant ultrastructure and broad distribution of the primary cilium captured attention, but its function in neural cells was unclear (Peters et al., 1976). Intense recent scrutiny of the primary cilium has elucidated many functions in the body and brain, and the consequences of defective cilia for human disease.