However, emerging evidence indicates that under hyperdopaminergic conditions, the protein kinase

B (Akt)-glycogen synthase kinase GDC-0973 solubility dmso 3 beta (GSK-3 beta) signaling cascade may mediate dopamine actions via D-2-like receptors. This cAMP-independent signaling pathway involves the regulation of downstream synaptic targets, e.g., AMPA receptor, NMDA receptors, and thus synaptic plasticity. Here we provide an overview of how this novel signaling pathway relays dopamine receptor-mediated responses, particularly hyperdopamine-dependent behaviors. We discuss the relevance of the Akt/GSK-3 beta signaling cascade for the expression of dopamine-dependent behaviors and the drug actions associated with dopaminergic systems. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Since

its designation in 1896 as a putative olfactory structure, the olfactory tubercle has received little attention in terms of elucidating its role in the processing and perception of odors. Instead, research on the olfactory tubercle has mostly focused on its relationship with the reward system. Here we provide a comprehensive review of research on the olfactory tubercle-with an emphasis on the likely role of this region in olfactory processing and its contributions to perception. Further, we propose several testable hypotheses regarding the likely involvement of the olfactory tubercle in both basic (odor detection, discrimination, parallel processing of olfactory information) and higher-order (social odor processing, hedonics, multi-modal integration) functions. Together, the information within MI-503 cost this review highlights an understudied yet potentially critical component in central odor processing. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is characterized by depressive episodes during winter that are alleviated during summer and by morning bright light treatment. Currently, there is no animal model of SAD. However, it may be possible to use rodents that respond to day length (photoperiod) MK-8931 manufacturer to understand how photoperiod can shape the brain and behavior in humans. As nights lengthen in the autumn, the duration of the nightly elevation of melatonin increase;

seasonally breeding animals use this information to orchestrate seasonal changes in physiology and behavior. SAD may originate from the extended duration of nightly melatonin secretion during fall and winter. These similarities between humans and rodents in melatonin secretion allows for comparisons with rodents that express more depressive-like responses when exposed to short day lengths. For instance, Siberian hamsters, fat sand rats, Nile grass rats, and Wistar rats display a depressive-like phenotype when exposed to short days. Current research in depression and animal models of depression suggests that hippocampal plasticity may underlie the symptoms of depression and depressive-like behaviors, respectively. It is also possible that day length induces structural changes in human brains.