These data suggest that different mechanisms Ponatinib order may be involved and perhaps one is preferable to another in generating the ideal state. New tools have been developed recently that have aided our understanding of the mechanisms of XCI, especially, as mentioned before, new methods to identify DNA bound to RNA. However a recent paper took a simple approach that is likely to answer fundamental questions about XCI during development that have yet to been sufficiently studied. Wu et al. developed a dual color mouse

line by integrating Cre-inducible, fluorescent proteins into the Hprt1 locus, a locus known to obey XCI, on both X chromosomes [ 39••]. Using this elegant system, they were able to generate mice in which every single cell was labeled either green or red, reflecting which X chromosome remained active in a given cell. They were able to generate maps of XCI in all the tissues of the body, down to single cell resolution. This valuable tool opens a number of interesting

areas of follow up. While X chromosome reactivation during reprogramming is well known, the precise timing of these events are difficult to study due to the small fraction of cells that eventually become reprogrammed. Using cell lines derived from these mice, one could determine the precise timing of reactivation Alisertib of the X chromosome in relation to obvious morphological changes or presence of gene expression profile changes. Female germ cell differentiation from stem cells could also benefit from this technology, as they are the only in vivo cell type with two active X chromosomes. This type of tool would be extremely useful in a human cell line, where XCI is more variable and less well understood. In the context of reprogramming, it would likely reveal important understanding of the relationship between the three XCI states that exist in human

iPSCs (XaXa, XaXi, XaXi*, see Figure 1). Even after 50 years, the field of XCI is still providing new insights as highlighted by the recent finding of XACT in human pluripotent cells. As technologies become more sophisticated ifoxetine and we are better able to profile single cells, we are sure to understand even more about X chromosome biology. As the field moves forward, there are a number of unanswered questions that remain, especially in the human system. Specifically, how will we utilize our knowledge of XCI to impact the future clinical use of stem cells? Since XCI is a uniquely female biology, it is an important area of study to ensure that patient-specific therapies enter the clinic at similar rates for men and women. As such, there are a number of areas that need to be addressed. First, how do we direct XCI in cell types of interest and how can we ensure that the X chromosome remains inactive? While the mouse has provided incredible insight, many of these studies will need to be conducted in human cell lines to address the human-specific differences.