, 2012). Nonetheless, despite these intense periods and relatively high mean intensity, players�� RPE was at a moderate level during all formats of games (Table 3). A similar result was also observed in a study of male selleck chemical and female recreational players (Randers et al., 2010). This finding may imply that, even though relative physiological stress imposed on players was high, they could not accurately perceive their level of fatigue. Thus, depending on the motivational climate of the games, the players might overexert themselves. Such a situation may be potentially hazardous, and can cause undesirable cardiovascular events by diminishing players�� self-control. Therefore, participants should be aware of their limits to ensure the safety of an activity.

This suggestion is especially relevant for participants who do not participate regularly in sport activity, or who are overweight and clinical (Boyd et al., 2012). A few previous studies addressed the technical actions performed during various formats of recreational games (Randers et al., 2010). This may be because technical actions are not the major aim of recreational soccer. However, as mentioned earlier, individuals�� participation in an activity is not only related to a belief in health benefits but also for the enjoyment and satisfaction associated with it. The findings of this study demonstrated that, independent of pitch size, the players performed more successful passes and dribbling, and fewer unsuccessful passes during 5-a-side games compared to 7-a-side.

Furthermore, technical actions were also influenced by pitch size in that the number of ball possessions and unsuccessful passes was higher on the small pitch. A study involving untrained males reported more tackles when playing 4-a-side or fewer players than for 7-a-side games (Randers et al., 2010). Jones and Drust (2007) reported that the number of individual ball contacts per game increased by reducing the number of players involved. A previous study of youth professional players also showed that additional players led to fewer technical actions performed per player (Owen et al., 2004). On the other hand, studies in soccer players indicated that increasing the size of the pitch had no significant effect on the technical actions performed (Kelly and Drust, 2009; Owen et al., 2004).

Solely in terms of technical actions employed, the results of the present study may Anacetrapib lead to the conclusion that players may have more chance to perform basic technical actions during 5-a-side games, especially on small pitches but also on large pitches. Thus, 5-a-side games in both pitch sizes could increase the enjoyment and satisfaction level of participants. Nonetheless, this issue requires more detailed analysis using larger research groups. In this study, technical actions were accepted as indicative of players�� enjoyment and satisfaction associated with match-play.

, 2010 ). It can be applied theoretically to any muscle or joint of the body, and it can be worn up to four days sellckchem without interfering with the daily hygiene and without modifying its adhesive properties ( Kase et al., 2003 ). The elimination of perspiration and freedom of motion are special KT characteristics that athletes appreciate ( Huang et al., 2011 ). Kase et al. (2003) proposed several taping mechanisms with various intended outcomes depending on how the tape was applied. Using these mechanisms, different beneficial effects could be achieved, including: (1) increasing proprioception, (2) normalizing muscle tension, (3) creating more space for improving circulation, (4) correcting muscle functioning by strengthening muscle weakness, and (5) decreasing pain.

Unfortunately, the limited research on the purported benefits of the KT has yielded contradictory results ( Garcia-Muro et al., 2010 ; Kaya et al., 2011 ; Paoloni et al., 2011 ; Thelen et al., 2008 ). Duathlon is a popular sports discipline that combines running, cycling and running in one event. Ankle mobility is essential for proper running technique, especially when pushing off ( Cejuela et al., 2007 ). During duathlon competitions it is quite common to experience soreness and cramping in the calf muscles due to overuse ( Merino-Marban et al., 2011 ). The fascia is a connective tissue that surrounds and covers muscles, which increases its tension in response to the mechanical load applied to the tissue during exercise ( O��Sullivan and Bird, 2011 ; Schleip et al., 2010 ).

One theory suggests that the KT could improve sports performance by unloading the fascia, thereby relieving pain, by reducing the mechanical load on free nerve endings within the fascia ( O��Sullivan and Bird, 2011 ; Schleip et al., 2010 ). Research based on samples of healthy athletes in order to test the effect of the KT on some aspect of performance are scarce and contradictory, and all conducted in laboratory settings ( Briem et al., 2011 ; Chang et al., 2010 ; Fu et al., 2008 ). To our knowledge, no randomized controlled research examining the effects of the KT on calf pain and ankle range of motion during competition has been carried out. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the KT on calf pain and ankle dorsiflexion in duathletes immediately after its application and after a duathlon competition.

Material and Methods Participants A sample of 28 duathletes (6 females and 22 males) (age 29.11 �� 10.35 years; body height 172.57 �� 6.17 cm; body mass 66.63 �� 9.01 kg; body mass index 22.29 �� 2.00 kg/m 2 ) were recruited from the competitors in a duathlon sprint (5 km running + 20 km cycling + 2.5 km running). The participants were Dacomitinib recreational duathletes involved in regular training and competition (mean training 15.59 �� 6.56 hours per week, mean competition experience 6.41 �� 6.47 years).

99 years). They were all right-handed and able to perform first serves. None of the participants played tennis outside the timetable for data collection during the research. All the participants provided informed consent according to the Declaration of Helsinki. The Extremadura University Ethical Committee inhibitor Enzastaurin approved the procedure. Measures Product variables analyzed were stroke accuracy, measured by radial error (Robins et al., 2006), variable error, which represents serve errors made in respect of deviation from the serve target area, and the ball speed. Process variables (Table 1) were measured over the trajectory of the hand holding the racket along the antero-posterior (X), the transverse (Y), and the longitudinal (Z) axes.

With respect to non-linear variables, these give information about the structure and characteristics of the variability present in the time series. These time series were derived from the position of the hand holding the racket during its trajectory, from the beginning of the movement until the moment the racket hit the ball. Table 1 Dependent variables analyzed in the research. In each instant kinematic variable the standard deviation (SD) and the variation coefficient (CV) was analyzed Tasks, material and measurements Each tennis player performed 20 first serves. They were instructed to hit the ball with as much power and accuracy as they could, and to avoid sending the balls into the area known in tennis slang as the ��T�� (the line intersection which divides both service boxes from their respective service lines).

The ball bounce on the tennis court surface was video recorded in every serve (Sony HDR- HC3E). The video camera was set at a height of 3 meters and was positioned at the back of the court. In order to measure accuracy, a Visual Basic 5.0 application was developed (Menayo, 2010). This facilitated the calculation of real-space Cartesian coordinates for the ball bounces through a digitization process from the video recording of the serves. Non-linear kinematic variables were analyzed by using a software application created with Visual Basic 5.0, from an algorithm for calculating Approximate Entropy (Pincus, 1991). To measure ball speed, a radar gun (Sports Radar SR3600) was used. This radar device, which records the speed of moving objects with an accuracy of +/? 1 km/h, was positioned behind the tennis player, facing the direction of the stroke (Figure 1).

An electromagnetic motion tracking system Polhemus Fastrak? was used to record and analyze kinematic variables and this was connected to a computer (Toshiba Satellite 1900). This tracking system has 6 Degree-of-Freedom motion tracking sensors, with an accuracy of 0.08 cm for position (X, Y and Z Cartesian space coordinates) and 0.15 degrees for angular orientation (azimuth, elevation, and roll), and records at a frequency GSK-3 of 120 Hz. Figure 1 Automated measurement system.

, 2000 ). From a control perspective, it can be stated that changes in central commands did selleckbio not lead to changes in APA time in the analyzed motor task. Therefore, one should remember that it was a rapid movement which differs from cyclic ones. However, Winstein et al. (1997) found that in classical tapping tasks, when more precise targeting independent of task difficulty was required, a cortical-subcortical loop composed of the contralateral motor cortex, intraparietal sulcus and caudate was much more activated. They showed, with a use of positron emission tomography (PET), that greater effort in performing a difficult task (smaller targets) recruits more motor planning areas. Recent studies showed that there is a specific modulation of neural network associated with the availability of time to plan the upcoming movement and motor difficulty.

One of them used brain-imaging (fMRI) to examine a simple motor task – moving a mouse cursor on a screen ( Boyd et al., 2009 ). Another examined step initiation in patients with Parkinson��s disease ( Jacobs et al., 2009 ). The same concerns the study by Bartucco and Cesari (2010) described earlier, which focused on motion capture experiments on ballet movements. It looks like in these experiments subjects used distinct control of APA duration and APA magnitude according to Fitts�� law. It is one of the limitation of our study that we did not observe changes in the central nervous system. An additional limitation is that we did not record muscle activity.

It is hard to estimate information processing but it can be guessed that the commands do not concern speed manifested in the velocity of a dart but the accuracy of aiming. Concentrating on accuracy does not have to lead to changes in force recruitment. That hypothesis is partly supported by Smits-Engelsman et al. (2002) who suggest fundamental differences in cyclic and discrete movements. They also claim that cyclic movements make a more cost-effective use of the recruited force, use less information-processing capacity and less change in force, then discrete ( Smits-Engelsman et al., 2002 ). This interesting hypothesis is worth considering and examining in future research. Whenever we optimize the speed-accuracy trade-off in specific movement by repetitions we can create a motor skill and perform the movement better and better. Then we start to act effortless and automatic.

Unfortunately, there is a lack of data concerning some applications of Fitts�� law in sports training. It is simply impossible to say if it is better to Batimastat differentiate a distance or a target size during the process of gradual mastering of specific motor skills with repeated performance. From a physics point of view, controlling velocity seems to be the simplest way to perform a motor task. It may be more effective to change spatial constraints to achieve better results in high-performance sport.