BMC Microbiol 2011, 11:139 PubMedCrossRef 23 Gyuranecz M, Birdse

BMC Microbiol 2011, 11:139.PubMedCrossRef 23. Gyuranecz M, Birdsell DN, Splettstoesser W, Seibold E, Beckstrom-Sternberg SM, Makrai L, Fodor L, Fabbi M, Vicari N, Johansson A, Busch JD, Vogler AJ, Keim P, Wagner DM: Phylogeography of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica , Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2012, 18:290–293.PubMedCrossRef 24. Dempsey MP, Dobson M, click here Zhang C, Zhang M, Lion C, Gutiérrez-Martín CB, Iwen PC, Fey PD, Olson ME, Niemeyer D, Francesconi S, Crawford R, Stanley M, Rhodes J, Wagner DM, Vogler AJ, Birdsell D, Keim P, Johansson A, Hinrichs SH, Benson AK: Genomic deletion marking an emerging subclone of Francisella

tularensis subsp. holarctica in France and the Iberian Peninsula. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007, 73:7465–7470.PubMedCrossRef 25. Pilo P, Johansson A, Frey J: Identification of Francisella tularensis cluster in central Smoothened antagonist and western Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2009, 15:2049–2051.PubMedCrossRef 26. Gehringer H, Schacht E, Maylaender N, Zeman E, Kaysser P, Oehme R, Pluta S: Presence of an emerging subclone of Francisella tularensis holarctica in Ixodes ricinus ticks from south-western Germany. Ticks Tick-borne Dis 2012, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.09.001. 27. Kudelina RI, Olsufiev NG: Sensitivity to macrolide antibiotics and lincomycin in Francisella tularensis holarctica . J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol

Immunol 1980, 24:84–91.PubMed 28. Petersen J, Molins C: Subpopulations of Francisella tularensis ssp. tularensis and holarctica: identification and associated epidemiology.

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Table 1 Range and levels of the independent variables lysine (Lys

The conditions of independent variables and cephamycin C production results (observed and predicted) are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 Range and levels of the independent variables lysine (Lys) and alpha-aminoadipic acid (AAA), NU7441 nmr in coded and original units, according to the two-factor, three-level central-composite-based, face-centered, experimental design (CCF); the response variable is cephamycin C concentration (CephC) obtained at 72-hour cultivation Run Independent variables Response Coded units Original units (g l-1) CephC (mg l-1) x Lys x AAA x Lys x AAA Measured* Predicted 1 -1 -1 0.9 0 25.0 ± 8.2 15.5 2 0 -1 3.2 0 45.0 ± 9.6 52.7 3 +1 -1 5.5 0 55.0 ± 5.9 56.7 4 -1 0 0.9 0.32 44.1 ± 0.9 57.8 5 0 0 3.2 0.32 105.8 ± 6.6 100.5 6 +1 0 5.5 0.32 118.5 ± 6.4 110.0 7 0 +1 3.2 0.64 112.4 ± 0.0 110.6 8 0 +1 3.2 0.64 102.8 ± 0.0 110.6 9 0 +1 3.2 0.64 117.8 ± 0.0 110.6 10 0 +1 3.2 0.64 112.0 ± 0.0 110.6 11 -1 +1 0.9 0.64 66.7 ± 7.7 62.4 12 +1 +1 5.5 0.64 118.8 ± 9.6 125.6 *The cultivations were performed PF-6463922 in vitro in triplicate,

with the exception of cultivation at condition (0,+1) performed in quadruplicate; SD = standard SB-3CT deviation. Table 2 Range and levels of independent variables lysine (Lys), 1,3-diaminopropane (1,3D), cadaverine (Cad), and putrescine (Put), in coded and original units, according to two-factor, three-level central-composite-based, face-centered, experimental designs (CCF); the response variable is cephamycin C concentration (CephC) obtained at 72-hour cultivation   Independent variables Response   Coded units Original units (g l-1) CephC (mg l-1)   Lys + 1,3D Lys + Cad Lys + Put

Run x Lys x i x Lys x 1,3D x Cad x Put Measured* Predicted Measured* Predicted Measured* Predicted 1 -1 -1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.1 ± 3.0 10.6 19.0 ± 2.7 22.7 18.0 ± 2.7 16.7 2 0 -1 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 45.6 ± 7.2 59.9 45.6 ± 2.2 39.1 47.3 ± 3.2 53.9 3 +1 -1 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 72.3 ± 4.1 64.9 72.1 ± 1.9 74.7 75.5 ± 3.6 70.3 4 -1 0 0 2.5 3.5 0.2 47.6 ± 3.9 53.9 34.7 ± 3.5 30.2 31.1 ± 2.2 33.8 5 0 0 3.7 2.5 3.5 0.2 108.9 ± 0.0 109.2 40.5 ± 0.0 41.2 63.1 ± 0.0 64.6 6 0 0 3.7 2.5 3.5 0.2 122.1 ± 0.0 109.2 35.9 ± 0.0 41.2 75.0 ± 0.0 64.6 7 0 0 3.7 2.5 3.5 0.2 100.7 ± 0.0 109.2 42.0 ± 0.0 41.2 69.0 ± 0.0 64.6 8 0 0 3.7 2.5 3.5 0.2 120.0 ± 0.0 109.2 41.1 ± 0.0 41.2 64.9 ± 0.0 64.6 9 +1 0 7.4 2.5 3.5 0.2 114.4 ± 13.6 120.2 74.2 ± 2.1 71.5 64.0 ± 3.4 74.

With this schedule we noted a mild and transitory toxicity which

With this schedule we noted a mild and transitory toxicity which was quickly reversible after treatment. Two rats in the WBI group lived more than 120 days. They were sacrificed and their brain was removed; there was no sign of tumor. It is not

possible to determine whether there was a technical problem during the tumor cells implantation or if the animals achieved a complete response after irradiation. There is a paucity of experimental data in literature on rat radiobiology. Different energy sources are used. Some groups work with a dedicated irradiator for small animals in their laboratory. This type of irradiator uses137Cesium or60Cobalt source and delivers gamma-rays [[9, 19, 20] and [21]]. As Lamproglou, even though his work was on normal brain [12], we decided to treat our rats with linear accelerator used in clinical practice. Animal irradiation MLN2238 research buy may be difficult to manage because of the limited availability of accelerators but the main advantage is to deliver the same energy type as in clinical practice. There are other advantages of using a nonradioactive x-ray-producing irradiator such as avoiding the increasing number of radioprotection controls as well as the potential source

hazard, disposal ASK inhibitor and replacement; nonetheless the expected efficacy is the same whatever the radiation source chosen. This work does not answer the crucial question of optimal therapeutic regimen as it was conducted before our studies into the efficacy of local chemotherapy concomitant to radiation therapy in 9L glioma [22]. Another study confirms the reproducibility of the model as we obtained the same eltoprazine improvement in survival in the radiation group compared to the untreated group [18]. Therefore, this radiation therapy protocol has the potential to induce strong tumor debulking and facilitate concomitant chemotherapy treatment. Conclusion Many models of radiation therapy for

rat glioma are available, with different schedules. We describe a reproducible paradigm of fractionated radiotherapy for rat bearing a brain tumor, which reflects clinical practice, with a good compromise between feasibility and adaptation to chemotherapy radiosensitization studies. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Pierre Legras and Jerome Roux (Service Commun d’Animalerie Hospitalo-Universitaire, Angers, France) for skillful technical support with animals and the Radiotherapy Department of Paul Papin Center for technical help. Special thanks to Rachel Holden for her precious help. This work was supported by “”La Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale”". References 1.

Sequences

from this work were added using the parsimony a

Sequences

from this work were added using the parsimony algorithm. This tree results from a phylogenetic calculation including Semaxanib chemical structure more than 26,0000 bacterial 16S rDNA sequences. Only the nearest relatives are shown in this tree. (TIF 5 MB) References 1. Duron O, Bouchon D, Boutin S, Bellamy L, Zhou L, Engelstädter J, Hurst GD: The diversity of reproductive parasites among arthropods: Wolbachia do not walk alone. BMC Biol 2008, 6:27.PubMedCrossRef 2. Hilgenboecker K, Hammerstein P, Schlattmann P, Telschow A, Werren JH: How many species are infected with Wolbachia ?–A statistical analysis of current data. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2008,281(2):215–220.PubMedCrossRef 3. Moya A, Pereto J, Gil R, Latorre A: Learning how to live together: genomic insights

into prokaryote-animal symbioses. Nature Rev Genet 2008,9(3):218–229.PubMedCrossRef CB-839 cost 4. Kikuchi Y: Endosymbiotic bacteria in insects: their diversity and culturability. Microbes Environ 2009,24(3):195–204.PubMedCrossRef 5. Gil R, Latorre A, Moya A: Bacterial endosymbionts of insects: insights from comparative genomics. Environ Microbiol 2004,6(11):1109–1122.PubMedCrossRef 6. Moran NA, McCutcheon JP, Nakabachi A: Genomics and evolution of heritable bacterial symbionts. Annu Rev Genet 2008, 42:165–190.PubMedCrossRef 7. Douglas AE: Symbiotic microorganisms: untapped resources for insect pest control. Trends Biotechnol 2007,25(8):338–342.PubMedCrossRef 8. Harkins T, Jarvie T: Metagenomics analysis using the Genome Sequencer™ FLX system. Nature Methods 2007, 4:6. 9. Head IM, Saunders JR, Pickup RW: Microbial evolution, diversity, and ecology: A decade of ribosomal RNA analysis of uncultivated microorganisms. HSP90 Microb Ecol 1998,35(1):1–21.PubMedCrossRef 10. Acosta-Martinez V, Dowd S, Sun Y, Allen V: Tag-encoded pyrosequencing analysis of bacterial diversity in a single soil type as affected by management and land use. Soil Biol Biochem 2008,40(11):2762–2770.CrossRef 11. Teixeira L, Peixoto RS, Cury JC, Sul WJ, Pellizari VH, Tiedje J, Rosado AS: Bacterial diversity in rhizosphere soil from Antarctic vascular

plants of Admiralty Bay, maritime Antarctica. ISME J 2010,4(8):989–1001.PubMedCrossRef 12. Edwards RA, Rodriguez-Brito B, Wegley L, Haynes M, Breitbart M, Peterson DM, Saar MO, Alexander S, Alexander EC, Rohwer F: Using pyrosequencing to shed light on deep mine microbial ecology. BMC Genomics 2006, 7:57.CrossRef 13. Sogin ML, Morrison HG, Huber JA, Mark Welch D, Huse SM, Neal PR, Arrieta JM, Herndl GJ: Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored “”rare biosphere”". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006,103(32):12115–12120.PubMedCrossRef 14. Keijser BJF, Zaura E, Huse SM, van der Vossen J, Schuren FHJ, Montijn RC, ten Cate JM, Crielaard W: Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. J Dent Res 2008,87(11):1016–1020.PubMedCrossRef 15. Meyer M, Stenzel U, Hofreiter M: Parallel tagged sequencing on the 454 platform. Nat Protoc 2008,3(2):267–278.PubMedCrossRef 16.

AT read the final manuscript All the authors read and approved t

AT read the final manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Homo- and hetero-hierarchical

nanostructures (NSs) consist of two or more materials in the family of nanostructures have become one of the most intensively studied topics in the field of nanotechnology. Nanoparticles (NPs), nanowires (NWs) (including nanorods and nanowhiskers), nanolayers (NLs) (including nanoflakes and nanowalls), and other types of fundamental building blocks consist of a single material-NSs have been uncovered, synthesized, and studied for more than few decades ago. The next level of study based on hierarchical NSs is the combination/integration of more than one type of fundamental building blocks as mentioned CH5183284 nmr above which may consist of more than one material. Many researchers’ works

for applications of hierarchical NSs actually show better performance compared with the primary building block NSs [1–3]. Those applications include hybrid nanoelectronic, nano-optoelectronic, nanomechanical, and electrochemical devices. Recently, the characterization and implementation of hierarchical NSs in photoelectrochemical Metabolism inhibitor (PEC) cell has been widely explored [4, 5]. Hierarchical core-shell or trunk-branch NSs are expected to give better performance to the photocurrent. Those are commonly addressed as photoconductors. A photoconductor is a device which will conduct electricity when exposed to light. Infrared detectors, optical imaging devices, photodetectors, photovoltaics, optical switches, biological and chemical sensing photocopiers, and optical receivers for fiber-optic communication all rely on the characteristic of a photoconductor. In the scale of nanometer, scientists believe that photoconductors will provide better answer for nanoelectronics, nano, and molecular scaled optical-related devices. Basically, photocurrent could be sourced from two major

mechanisms, namely photovoltaic and PEC processes. In photovoltaic process, photon from sun Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase light generates free electron-hole pairs where they are then collected at the electrode, and electrical power could be extracted at the external circuit. For PEC process, absorbed photons are used to excite electrons and the excited electrons will drive the chemical reaction. One of the common examples for the second process is water splitting to generate hydrogen. For visible light detection, Si as a group IV semiconductor material, is well-established due to its compatibility with CMOS process. It has been well-understood and studied. Up to date, some numbers of Si-based nanowires photoconductive devices have been studied [6–10]. Metal oxide NWs are also another important type of photosensitive materials. One of the most intensively studied materials is zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructure. Its unique properties on magnetic, mechanical, optical, and the recent spintronics provide further opportunities on a wide variety of applications.

The 0 03 OTU curves were different with that of the unique OTU (F

The 0.03 OTU curves were different with that of the unique OTU (Fig. 1B). The most marked change happened to A, B and D groups, which three showed dissimilar slopes this time. The condition D showed the steepest slope, suggesting that more tags in the group having larger than 3% variance than the other two conditions. The difference between E and B curves for 0.03 OTU was less pronounced than that for the unique OTU, indicating that a proportion of different unique sequences between B and E groups were within 97% similarity, which could possibly be produced by the PCR mutation. In addition to unique and 0.03 OTUs, we also compared OTUs at 0.05 and 0.10 distances (Additional file

2), and the trends were generally similar to that for 0.03 OTU. Nevertheless, because the larger distance OTUs harbored more varied sequences, the differences between the 5 groups were less obvious. Abundance of top 300 tags The Fig. MLN8237 nmr 2 presents the relative abundance of the top 300 V6 sequences in the 10 samples. We observed that the E group (blue curve) showed significant differences with the other four groups, particularly for many tags within the top 50 abundances. For instance, the 10th abundant tag assigned as Syntrophobacterales (Deltaproteobacteria) showed 0.95-1.19% abundance in A to D groups, but only occupied 0.03-0.06% in the E group. The 15th abundant tag assigned as Epsilonproteobacteria had abundances of 0.46-0.62% in group A to D samples, but showed

1.50-1.53% in the LY2874455 datasheet Methamphetamine E group. In total, 91 out of the top 300 tags in group E showed significant differences with other 8 samples using the students t-test analysis (p < 0.01). A further PCA analysis using the 300 tags proved that the E1 and E2 were obviously different with other 8 samples (Fig. 2). Figure 2 Relative abundances (%) of the top 300 predominant V6 sequences in the 10 samples. The right figure shows the PCA of the 10 samples using the abundance data of top 300 tags. Microbial community

structure The community structure was compared at the phylum (subphylum for proteobacteria) level (Fig. 3). In general, the A to D groups showed very similar structure, but the E group showed obvious differences. The A-D groups showed higher phylum evenness than the E group. Statistically, the E group had higher percentage of Gammaproteobacteria and Epsilonproteobacteria, but lower percentage of Chloroflexi and Planctomycetes (One Way ANOVA, p < 0.01). We also compared the 10 samples using clustering with Primer 6 (Fig. 3). The result showed that samples E1 and E2 formed a different branch with the other 8 samples. Figure 3 Relative abundance of bacteria phyla (subphyla) in the 10 samples. The dendrogram shows the clustering of 10 samples using the phyla (subphyla) abundance data. Discussion Sequencing quality The present study sequenced the 16 S rRNA V6 tags using the Solexa platform, which employed a different base calling procedure with the pyrosequencing [19].

A number of experiments simulating the conditions of SHSs were co

A number of experiments simulating the conditions of SHSs were conducted, and abiotic production and polymerization of amino acids were reported. On the other side, it was claimed that organic compounds, particularly amino acids, are not stable AZD6244 in vivo in such high temperature environments as SHSs. In our early studies, not free amino acids but complex amino acids precursors with large molecular weights were formed abiotically from simulated primitive Earth atmosphere (a mixture of CO, N2 and H2O) (Takano et al., 2004). Such complex organics (hereafter referred as to CNW) should have been delivered to SHSs in

primitive ocean, where they were subjected to further alteration. We examined possible alteration of the complex organics in high-temperature high-pressure

environments by the supercritical water flow reactor (SCWFR) (Islam et al. 2003) and an autoclave. The complex amino acid precursors (CNW) were much stabler than free amino acids. While grainy structures of ca. 10 nm size were observed in CNW with a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), fused film-like structures of micrometer order size were formed after CNW was heated at 573 K for 2 min by SCWFR. It was possible that complex organic compounds delivered to primordial SHSs altered chemically and morphologically Selleck Tucidinostat toward the generation of the first life. Islam, Md. Tangeritin N., Kaneko, T., and Kobayashi, K (2003). Reactions of Amino Acids with a Newly Constructed[3000]Supercritical Water Flow Reactor Simulating Submarine Hydrothermal Systems. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 76, 1171 Takano, Y., Marumo, K., Yabashi, S., Kaneko, T., and Kobayashi, K., (2004). Curie-Point

Pyrolysis of Complex Organics Simulated by Cosmic Rays Irradiation of Simple Inorganic Gas Mixture. Appl Pyys. Lett, 85, 1633 E-mail: d06sa503@ynu.​ac.​jp Pyrite as a Template for Carbon Fixation Paula Lindgren1, John Parnell2, Nils G. Holm1 1Department of Geology and Geochemistry, Stockholm University, Sweden; 2Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, UK An important process in the evolution of life is the precipitation and concentration of organic species. There are several examples of minerals acting as templates for the accumulation and concentration of organic matter. These include for instance clays (e.g. Cairns-Smith and Hartman, 1986), radioactive minerals (e.g. Rasmussen, et al. 1993), zeolites and feldspars (e.g. Smith, et al. 1999) and the sulphide mineral pyrite (FeS2) (e.g. Wächtershäuser, 1988). Wächtershäuser (1988) suggested that prebiotic chemistry and eventually life itself could have started on the surface of pyrite.

After drying, each sample was finely ground in a mortar, sieved,

After drying, each sample was finely ground in a mortar, sieved, homogenized and stored at −20°C until DNA extraction was performed. Soil DNA extraction A DNA extraction procedure was specifically developed

for all the four types of soil analysed in this study. Three replicates (5 g each) were prepared for each soil sample, re-suspended in 6–7 ml of CTAB lysis buffer (2% CTAB, 2% Polyvinylpyrrolidon, VX-809 cost 2 M NaCl, 20 mM EDTA, 100 mM Tris–HCl, pH 8) and processed according the detailed protocol described in Additional file 2. Brown crude DNA solutions (about 3 ml in volume) from each reaction were obtained following this extraction phase and 1 ml aliquots were then purified using the Nucleospin Plant II kit (Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany) following the manufacturer’s instructions with slight modifications (see Additional file 2). Total DNAs were finally

eluted in 65 μl of elution buffer (5 mM Tris/HCl, pH 8.5). The amount of DNA in each extract was quantified using a NanoDrop ND-1000 Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific). The quality of the total DNAs was evaluated with optical density (OD) 260/280 nm and 260/230 nm ratios. Extractions with OD ratios less than 1.4 and DNA quantity less than 25 ng μl–1 were repeated. In addition soil DNA extracts were PCR-amplified with primer pair ITS1-ITS4 [39] to confirm the absence of DNA polymerase inhibitors. Extracts with positive ITS1-ITS4 amplification products (from 500 bp to 1000 bp) were considered suitable for this website quantitative Sulfite dehydrogenase PCR (qPCR) assays. Purified DNAs were stored at −80°C until processed. Primer and probe selection ITS1-5.8 S-ITS2 rDNA sequences of T. magnatum and other truffle

species were retrieved from GenBank database (http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​; date of accession: June, 2008) and aligned with Multalign [40] to identify species-specific domains for primer and probe selection. Oligonucleotide design was carried out with Primer3 software (http://​frodo.​wi.​mit.​edu/​primer3/​) [41] with the following parameters: amplicon size 90–110, primer size 18–22 bp (opt. 20 bp), melting temperature 58-62°C (opt. 60°C), GC content 40-60% (opt. 50%), Max Self Complementarity = 5. Secondary structures and dimer formation were verified using Oligo Analyzer 1.0.3 software (Freeware, Teemu Kuulasmaa, Finland) and specificity was firstly evaluated in silico using BLASTN algorithm (http://​blast.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​Blast.​cgi). A primer pair and the respective probe was selected for both the ITS1 and the ITS2 region (Table 2) and their specificity was then confirmed with qualitative PCR against genomic DNA of different mycorrhizal, saprobic and pathogenic fungi (Table 3). The specificity of the oligonucleotides selected as probes was tested in PCR reactions using their opposite primers (TmgITS1rev with TmgITS1prob and TmgITS2for with TmgITS2prob).

Phys Rev B 2004, 69:193304 CrossRef 14 Yuan ZQ, Yang CL, Du RR,

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2010, 105:246802.CrossRef 20. Iñarrea J, Platero G: Magnetoresistivity modulated response in bichromatic microwave irradiated two dimensional electron systems. Appl Phys Lett 2006, 89:172114.CrossRef 21. Iñarrea J, Lopez-Monis C, MacDonald AH, Platero G: Hysteretic behavior in weakly coupled double-dot transport in the spin blockade

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Furthermore, the 155 kDa band that putatively represented the com

Furthermore, the 155 kDa band that putatively represented the complex of PAp and Rnr1p remained present under these strong reducing conditions. Proteins extracted from the control and PA-expressing strains grown in YPRaf/Gal medium had no observable differences in the total amount of Rnr1p or the ratio

of reduced to oxidized Rnr1p under reducing or non-reducing protein extraction conditions (Additional file 1: Figure S5). In addition, the ~155 kDa band was absent from extracts of both strains grown in YPRaf/Gal medium. Note that we verified the molecular weight of the oxidized and reduced Rnr1p bands using a strain that overexpresses Rnr1p (Additional file 1: Figure S5). These results indicated that a non-reducible PAp-Rnr1p complex is formed, but only when PAp is expressed at low levels. Figure

5 The PA incompatibility domain interacts with yeast Rnr1p. A) Proteins were EPZ-6438 price extracted from PA-expressing and control yeast cells grown in YPD. Under non-reducing conditions, proteins extracted from PA-expressing yeast contained a lower amount of oxidized (open arrow) Rnr1p and a greater amount of reduced Rnr1p (solid arrow) compared to the control strain. As expected, oxidized Rnr1p in control strain is converted to the reduced form when proteins are extracted under reducing conditions. An intense band at 155 kDa (*), inferred to be a non-reducible PA (FLAG)p-Rnr1p complex (see Panel B), was observed in proteins extracted from MAPK inhibitor PA(FLAG)-expressing yeast. Equal loading across lanes was based on Bradford assays and verified by a non-specified protein that reacted with the anti-Rnr1p polyclonal selleck antibody (loading control). The images shown here are taken from one blot and as such exposure times are the same across all lanes. Similar results were observed in three independent experiments. B) Proteins were extracted under native conditions from PA-expressing and control yeast grown in YPD and subjected to size exclusion chromatography. Following fractionation, proteins were precipitated and concentrated, and treated with reducing agents before

use in immunoblots. Co-fractionation and co-localization of the PA(FLAG)p (detected by anti-FLAG antibodies) and Rnr1p (detected by anti-Rnr1p antibodies) provides evidence for a 155 kDa PA(FLAG)p-Rnr1p complex (*) in Fraction 3 of the PA(FLAG) strain but not the control. Note that the range of proteins included in Fraction 3 is from 238 kDa to 55 kDa as determined by the elution of a HiMark pre-stained HMW Protein Standard (Invitrogen, not shown). Solid arrow indicates reduced form of Rnr1p. Equal loading was confirmed using a Coomassie stained duplicate gels. Molecular size markers are indicated at the left in both panels. To test whether the 155 kDa signal comprises Rnr1p and PAp, we subjected native-form proteins to size exclusion chromatography.