In addition, APEC O1 is one of the most well characterized APEC strains in the literature [37], [42] and [45]. Antimicrobials are commonly used to control colibacillosis in the poultry industry. With rising concern and demonstration of drug resistant bacteria [47], other control methods, such as enhanced host genetics, are a growing area of research. Past experimentation has illustrated the potential for breeding for colibacillosis resistance [2] and [10], indicating that greater research surrounding the genetic control of mechanisms of resistance is needed as a foundation for more effective

breeding programs. Gene expression analysis of immune tissues is commonly used to characterize immune response [13] and [59] and provides potential candidate genes for disease resistance. Expression levels of immune genes have been shown to be heritable [68], evidence that the tactic of genetic VX-770 manufacturer selection for gene expression levels could be successful in a breeding program. The chicken immune system is equipped with several mechanisms to combat pathogens. Multiple tissues each contribute unique signals and functions to help identify

and FDA approved Drug Library manufacturer combat disease. Peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) are comprised of a dynamic population of cell types that serve in both the innate and adaptive immune responses [20] and [66]. Heterophils, the avian equivalent of neutrophils, are an innate responder and typically the first cell type to fight infection. Heterophils destroy susceptible

bacteria through phagocytosis, oxidative burst and extracellular traps [14] and [22]. Proper signaling by cytokines and T-helper cells can increase the effectiveness of immune response. The defensive mechanisms of APEC can, however, reduce the effectiveness of the innate immune response and may include resistance to the detrimental effects of phagocytosis and complement, or decreasing the antimicrobial activity of heterophils [28], [41], [50], [54] and [58]. Enhanced genetics of the host immune response may allow chickens to overcome APEC’s defenses. Very few publications Methane monooxygenase have documented differences in gene expression between individuals that are resistant vs. susceptible to APEC. We hypothesize that the global transcriptome of peripheral blood leukocytes will differ depending upon vaccination, challenge, and pathological response to APEC. This study aims to determine these gene expression differences associated with an APEC infection, which will lead to a better understanding of the genetic control of resistance and may serve as biomarkers for genetic selection for improved response to APEC infection. APEC O1 strain O1:K1:H7 (NCBI reference sequence: NC_008563.1) was kept in brain heart infusion broth with 10% glycerol at −80 °C. Its genomic sequence is available and has been completely characterized [37].

Park et al. [160] analyzed the relevance of MAPK activation and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced apoptosis in MC3T3-E1 cells. http://www.selleckchem.com/products/z-vad-fmk.html We also

examined whether MAPKs play a role in osteocytes apoptosis, treating osteocytes with the ERK1/2 inhibitor, PD98059, and p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB239063, under compressive force loading [155]. PD98059 significantly blocked loading-induced osteocyte apoptosis, whereas SB239063 showed a trend, but not significant for reduced osteocyte apoptosis. These results indicate that compressive force loading induces osteocyte apoptosis through activation of MAPK, especially ERK1/2. However, we did not examine how ERK1/2 activation induces osteocyte apoptosis, which thus needs to be assessed in future investigations. Osteocytes produce various factors that mediate the onset of bone formation and resorption, and play roles in maintaining bone homeostasis and remodeling in response to

mechanical stimuli. Osteocytes are mechanosensors and mechanotransducers in bone. As explained in this article, we have shown previously that osteocytes respond to mechanical compressive force loaded on the bone with expression of the osteopontin gene during experimental tooth movement. Following the increased expression of OPN in osteocytes, a greater number of osteoclasts and numerous resorption pits were observed on the pressure side of the alveolar bone. Furthermore, an in vitro migration assay demonstrated the chemotactic activity of OPN on the precursor of osteoclasts. Thus, our study selleck inhibitor suggests that OPN is an important

migration factor for osteoclast precursor cells to bone surface, triggering bone resorption caused by mechanical compressive forces. In addition to OPN, experimental tooth movement stimulates the gene expression of CCN2/CTGF and induces apoptosis in osteocytes in mice. In that study, CTGF mRNA expression was detected at 2 h in osteocytes on the pressure side, followed by apoptosis at 6 h after tooth movement in mice and the number of empty lacunae significantly increased on day 1 after mechanical stimulation. Thereafter, the number of osteoclasts significantly increased on the pressure side of the alveolar bone on day 3. Finally, tooth movement increased rapidly on day 10. These findings suggest that CTGF expression, followed by apoptosis Thymidine kinase in osteocytes in response to mechanical compressive force might play a significant role for bone resorption on pressure side during tooth movement. CCN2 expression and production were promoted in isolated osteocytes in vitro under compressive force loading. The reinforced CCN2 induced osteocyte apoptosis through activation of ERK1/2 pathway. These results at least in part elucidated the mechanism of bone resorption under mechanical compressive force. Furthermore, we showed anti-apoptotic effect of CCN2 neutralizing antibody and ERK1/2 inhibitor, PD98059 in osteocytes under compressive force loading.

The V-Primer material was effective for bonding between Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy and Dentacolor [7], Visio-Gem [8], and Axis [9] composites. An evaluation study comparing the effect of priming agent demonstrated that adhesive performance of the Alloy Primer and Metaltite agents was better than that of the V-Primer material, when the Axis composite was bonded to an Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy Selleck ATM/ATR inhibitor [9]. Single liquid primers were used in combination with resin-based luting agents. An initial evaluation exhibited that durability of bond the Super-Bond C&B resin joined to Co–Cr and Ag–Pd–Au–Cu alloys was comparable [10]. The Super-Bond

C&B resin consists of the TBB initiator, methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomer liquid with 5% 4-methacryloyloxyethyl Dolutegravir cost trimellitate anhydride (4-META), and finely pulverized poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) powder (4-META/MMA-TBB resin). According to a 100,000-thermocycling evaluation, bond strength to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy of the Super-Bond resin was 23.0 MPa without application of primer, whereas 38.1 MPa with application of the V-Primer material [11]. Another 100,000-thermocycling evaluation showed that durability of bond to gold and Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloys using the V-Primer and Super-Bond materials was comparable [12]. Adhesive performance of the Metaltite material (MTU-6) was somewhat different form that of the V-Primer. The Metaltile material combined with the Super-Bond resin exhibited greater

bond strength to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy than the two alloys for metal-ceramic restorations [13]. Bonding performance Cyclin-dependent kinase 3 of thione primers combined with composite luting agents was also evaluated. The results showed that significant difference in bond strength to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy was not observed between the Alloy Primer-Panavia F system and

the Metaltite-Bistite II system [14]. Kajihara et al. [15] examined influence of citric acid-ferric chloride aqueous solution on bonding to dentin or Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy. The results showed that bond strength to dentin of the Super-Bond C&B resin was not negatively affected by combined application of thione primers and citric acid-ferric chloride solution. However, application to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy of citric acid-ferric chloride solution negatively affected the usefulness of two thione primers. Koishi et al. [16] compared bond strength of two acrylic resin materials to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy. The results showed that TBB-initiated acrylic resin (Super-Bond) combined with one of the two thione primers showed greater post-thermocycling bond strength than benzoyl peroxide-amine initiated resin (Multi-Bond). The influence of alumina air-abrasion on bonding to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy was evaluated apart from the effect of thione primer. Ishii et al. [17] reported that post-thermocycling bond strengths to Ag–Pd–Cu–Au alloy of the Super-Bond resin were improved by application of high-pressure air-abrasion.

It can be stated that the use of nanofiltration is a valid approach for the concentration of biologically active compounds in aqueous extract of mate.

The results showed that there was a significant increase in the contents of total phenolics, chlorogenic acid, methylxanthines, chlorophyll, and saponins, all of which are compounds that may have an important role in maintaining good health. Moreover, the mate extract and the concentrated mate extract showed differences in the survival rates of the S. cerevisiae yeast treated with hydrogen peroxide. Cilengitide research buy The authors are thankful to Jozeane Caldartt and Anselmo Zanelatto, for helping with the selection of the samples, and to the FINEP (Agency for Financing Research and Projects, Brazil) and the SEBRAE (Agency for Support to Small and Micro Companies, Brazil), for their financial support Akt inhibitor through the Projeto

Ervanova, and also to Dr. R. C. Von Borstel (Genetics Department, Alberta University, Canada) for kindly providing the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain XV185-14c (MATα, ade2-2, arg4-17, his1-7, lys1-1, trp5-48, hom3-10). “
“The publisher regrets that incorrect units appeared in Table 4 of this published article, where the unit μg/L was changed to mg/L during typesetting. The correct table appears below, and the publisher would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. “
“Rutin, also called rutoside, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside and sophorin, is a flavonoid glycoside consisting of the aglycone form, quercetin bound at the C-3 position (on ring C) to a disaccharide molecule, Smoothened rutinose (C12H22O10), which is composed of one molecule of rhamnose and one of glucose (Aherne & O’Brien, 2002). Rutin is found in the fruit of fava d’anta tree (Dimorphandra mollis) native to the Cerrado vegetation of Brazil, fruit rinds (especially citrus fruits, such as orange, grapefruit, lemon and lime) and berries such as mulberry, ash tree fruits and cranberries. It has been reported that rutin has several pharmacological functions such as antioxidant ( Boyle et al., 2000), cytoprotective

( Potapovich & Kostyuk, 2003), vasoprotective ( Tang et al., 2011), antiproliferative ( Santos et al., 2011), antithrombotic ( Sheu, Hsiao, Chou, Shen, & Chou, 2004) and cardioprotective activities ( Ziaee, Zamansoltani, Nassiri-Asl, & Abbasi, 2009). Quercetin is also an important dietary flavonoid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties ( Nijveldt et al., 2001) in addition to being an effective inhibitor of xanthine oxidase ( Day, Bao, Morgan, & Williamson, 2000). Xanthine oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid, generating superoxide radicals, which are involved in many pathological processes such as inflammation, atherosclerosis, cancer, and aging ( Paravicin & Touyz, 2008).

It is, for PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor 2 example, one of the main sources of chicoric and caffeoylmalic acid in the Central European diet ( Clifford, 2000). The major phenolic compounds in red leaf lettuce are quercetin-3-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-(6″-O-malonyl)-glucoside,

quercetin-3-O-glucuronide, luteolin-7-O-glucuronide and cyanidin 3-O-(6″-O-malonyl)-glucoside as well as di-O-caffeoyl tartaric acid (chicoric acid), 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid) and O-caffeoylmalic acid ( Llorach et al., 2008). Several of these substances have been ascribed antioxidative and antiatherogenic effects as well as inhibitive effects on lipid peroxidation and cyclooxigenase enzymes ( Cartea et al., 2011). In the cool seasons in Central Europe, lettuce is usually cultivated in greenhouses which

tend to consume large amounts of energy – mostly derived from fossil fuels. Due to economic and ecological reasons, strategies to improve greenhouse CO2-balances are currently being developed. One approach to save energy for heating is to cultivate crops at lower temperatures. This influences plants in manifold ways: Decreasing temperature generally slows down metabolic processes. With lettuce, this results for example in delayed growth, hence postponed development of marketable lettuce heads (Wurr, Fellows, & Phelps, www.selleckchem.com/products/MG132.html 1996), while it is also very likely to influence quality

parameters like secondary metabolites (Treutter, 2010). Concerning flavonoids, there are indications that biosynthesis increases with lower temperatures (Harbaum-Piayda et al., 2010, Havaux and Kloppstech, 2001 and Neugart et al., 2012). However, there are only few studies on the effect of temperature on the phenolic compounds in lettuce (Boo et al., 2011, Gazula et al., 2005 and Oh et al., 2009). In plants, the general deceleration of metabolic processes at low temperature affects for example the Calvin cycle enzymes of the light-independent part of photosynthesis (Havaux & Kloppstech, 2001). Thus, the intercepted light may eventually become over-excessive and lead to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by leakage of energy and/or electrons to molecular oxygen (Havaux & Kloppstech, Resveratrol 2001). ROS have the potential to destroy thylakoid membranes (the site of the light-dependent photosynthetic reactions), damage DNA, and denature proteins (Gould, Neill, & Vogelmann, 2002). The detrimental effects of low temperature-induced oxidative damage are enforced by the fact that also enzymatic repair processes are slowed down. However, ROS themselves can be perceived by plants. They can act as messenger molecules, eventually influencing gene expression and conveying acclimation to an altered environment (Edreva, 2005 and Gill and Tuteja, 2010).

It has been suggested that the genus Bacillus Alectinib price can be considered as a microbial “factory”,

as the species in this genus produce a wide variety of antibiotic metabolites. These compounds, including lipopeptides, have shown diverse inhibitory effects on the growth of various phytopathogens. Furthermore, approximately 4–5% of the genome of B. subtilis contains genes suitable for the synthesis of antibiotics; it has been proposed that over two dozen structurally diverse antimicrobial compounds are produced by this species [12]. Based on these reports, it is likely that the antifungal activity of B. subtilis HK-CSM-1 is due to the production of certain antibiotic compounds. Identification of these putative antibiotic compounds may be helpful in expanding our understanding of microbial functions in ecosystems, with the purpose of developing biotechnological tools to control a broad range of plant diseases. All contributing authors declare no conflicts of interest. This study was supported Lapatinib solubility dmso by research project PJ907151 of the National Institute of Horticultural & Herbal Science, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea. H.R. was supported by a grant from the National Research Foundation (2013R1A1A1076010). “
“Ms L is a 47-year-old lady who was referred

to respiratory medicine with recurrent, predictable symptoms occurring during flight, for assessment and flight testing. She recalled having flown in the past without incident, but had started having symptoms in 2003: at altitude she developed a severe, left-sided, stabbing, pleuritic chest pain that radiated through to her back. This was associated with a sudden, severe Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase tightness across her forehead and painless left arm weakness,

sufficiently severe to prevent her from using it to lift a cup. There were no associated neurological symptoms, such as facial weakness, dysphasia, or visual disturbances and she did not recall any associated pallor or discolouration in the arm. The symptoms occurred on 5 flights, the shortest of which lasted around 2.5 h, the longest 4.5 h. After the first episode, all subsequent flights resulted in symptoms that appeared to increase as the aeroplane reached altitude: they then fully resolved as the plane descended. The pain in the forehead was only prominent during one episode, but the pleuritic chest pain and arm weakness were always the same. She never received any inflight treatment: she never received oxygen. She had a previous history of eczema diagnosed in 1994, and had previously been treated for depression with fluoxetine, though had never suffered with anxiety attacks or claustrophobia. She had a history of mild asthma as a child, and smoked one cigarette a month on social occasions. There was no significant family or occupational history.

We conducted five separate sensitivity analyses by excluding cities which significantly contributed to the overall heterogeneity based on the influence plot; reintroducing all extreme values due to natural and accidental events; including data with uneven missing patterns; halving the number of monitoring stations in each city, and substituting the average approach for the maximum approach to aggregate data from multiple monitoring stations. The seven cities showed wide dispersion of their annual mean pollutant concentrations across the seven year trends (Fig. 2) after data cleaning and handling of uneven missing patterns (Suppl. Table). The data was most complete in Hong

Kong, London, Paris and Sydney. For comparisons of annual mean monitor learn more www.selleckchem.com/products/nivolumab.html concentrations with the WHO AQG, Sydney, Toronto, Paris and Los Angeles have achieved compliance for NO2 since 2004 and showed continual improvement; Sydney and Toronto have achieved compliance for PM2.5 since 2004 and continued to improve. London have achieved compliance for PM10 and NO2 in recent few years but exceeded the guideline for PM2.5 since 2004. Paris has lost compliance for PM10 since 2007 and for PM2.5 since 2004. Los Angeles

has not achieved compliance for PM since 2004. Bangkok has not achieved any compliance except for NO2 in 2005 and 2010. Hong Kong has no compliance of any WHO annual guideline and the levels remained the highest among all cities though there was consistent reduction in PM concentrations since 2004. There were no annual guidelines for SO2 and O3 for comparisons. However, the SO2 levels in Los Angeles, Sydney, London, Toronto and Paris remained around 5 μg/m3 whereas levels in Hong Kong and Bangkok were much higher despite of continual reductions. O3 levels in London and Hong Kong mainly ranged from 30–40 μg/m 3, Paris and Toronto from 40–50 μg/m 3, Sydney from 50–60 μg/m 3,

and Los Angeles above 60 μg/m 3 with continual increase reaching 70 μg/m 3 in 2010. For short-term limits derived from annual AQG, the short-term AQG (STAQG) of 50 μg/m3 for PM10 lay within the 95% CI of pooled mean estimates of the short-term limit values (46.4 μg/m3 [95% CI: 42.1–50.7], I2 = 53%) PtdIns(3,4)P2 with a similar finding for PM2.5 (STAQG of 25 μg/m3) (28.6 μg/m3 [24.5–32.6], I2 = 73%). The mean estimates of short-term limit values for NO2 ranging from 125.2 [118.1–132.2] to 175.8 μg/m3 [156.4–195.1] in seven cities (140.5 μg/m3 [95% CI: 130.6–150.4], I2 = 22%) ( Table 1a and Table 1b) were consistently lower (mean difference: 51.1 μg/m3 [37.9–64.3]) than the WHO 1-hour STAQG of 200 μg/m3 ( Fig. 3). For annual limits derived from STAQG, the mean estimates of annual limit values for SO2 ranged from 3.1 μg/m3 [2.5–3.7] to 5.8 μg/m3 [5.3–6.3] in seven cities with a pooled value of 4.6 μg/m3 [3.7–5.5] (I2 = 30%).

Trees with

a height:diameter ratio of 80:1 or less (both measured in identical meter units) are considered stable ( Abetz and Prange, 1976 and Wonn and O’Hara, 2001). While this trend is relatively consistent among species, some variation does exist within species. For broadleaves, the effect of height:diameter ratio on tree stability is rarely considered. Under circumstance where the trees are liable to snow loading, broadleaves would be leafless. Variations in height:diameter ratio mTOR inhibitor are largely a result of spacing. Spacing trials and thinning experiments consistently show that as intertree spacing increases, height:diameter ratio decreases. Distinct differences were found for Norway spruce (Burger, 1936, Abetz, 1976, Bergel, 1982, Abetz and Unfried, 1983, Abetz and Feinauer, 1987, Röhle, 1995 and Mäkinen and Isomäki, 2004) and Scots pine (Erteld, 1979 and Mäkinen et al., 2005). The additional growing space provided through wider initial spacing or thinning (growing stock level trials) allows residual trees to maintain rapid diameter growth, thus increasing taper. The most extreme height:diameter ratios would be reached for open-grown trees and for trees at a maximum stand density. Furthermore, wide spacings or early thinnings provide the

best means to reduce height:diameter ratios. Later thinnings are not as effective as heavy thinnings done early during stand development because the capacity to respond to release declines with age (Dimitri and Keudell, 1986, Wonn selleck products and O’Hara, 2001 and Mäkinen and Isomäki, 2004). On the stand level, a number of processes affect height:diameter ratios. First, the height growth of dominant trees is usually little affected by density. Subordinate members of the canopy, however, do experience height growth repression as competition increases with age and stocking (Abetz,

1976, Erteld, 1979, Mäkinen and Isomäki, 2004 and Bevilacqua et Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) al., 2005). In an attempt to maintain canopy position and better compete for light resources, intermediate and suppressed trees have less diameter growth for a given unit of height growth than more dominant trees. As stands differentiate, lower crown classes have smaller heights and disproportionately smaller diameters. Second, the absolute effect of thinning on basal area increment is highest for dominant trees because those trees have larger crowns and respond best to release (Mäkinen and Isomäki, 2004). The smaller trees cannot react to the increasing growing space as strongly as the larger ones. However, the relative increase in basal area increment (i.e. basal area increment/basal area at establishment) is higher for codominant and medium-sized trees (Assmann, 1961 and Mäkinen and Isomäki, 2004). Third, self-thinning removes primarily lower crown classes from the stand.

The selection of seed sources during this early period was, however, not always undertaken systematically. Some reforestation efforts failed as a result, and several countries attempted to restrict the use of imported seed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( König, 2005). In the 19th century, more systematic exploration efforts were also extended to North

America, and large quantities of seed of many trees from that region were shipped to other areas. Interestingly, several North American tree species were tested for forestry in Europe before they were assessed for this purpose in their home region (e.g., Samuel, 2007). During the 20th century, the transfer of tree germplasm for R&D purposes increased further when several international provenance trials were established for temperate and boreal species under the auspices of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) NVP-BGJ398 in vivo (see König, 2005). A series of IUFRO provenance trials was established for P. sylvestris (in 1907, 1938–39 and 1982) and P. abies (in 1938 and 1972), for example. The second IUFRO trial of P. abies, which was planted in Europe and Canada, is probably one of the largest trials ever established, involving 1,100 provenances

( König, 2005). The number of provenances tested in these trials was, however, usually much lower, ranging from 20 to 50. Provenance trials GW3965 were also established for several other European trees, such as Abies alba, L. decidua, Quercus petraea and Q. robur, as well as for North American species including Abies grandis, Picea sitchensis and Pseudotsuga menziesii. Many of these trials led to the identification of provenances that were superior to local seed sources (e.g., Madsen, 1995 and Eriksson, 2010). The early reforestation and R&D efforts

contributed significantly to the introduction of P. sylvestris and P. abies to 13 and 11 new countries, respectively, in Europe and other regions ( Table 1). Metalloexopeptidase In Canada, initial provenance trials of native trees were established for Picea spp. in the 1930s and 1940s, and for Pinus banksiana, Pinus resinosa and P. menziesii in the 1950s ( Anon, 1997 and Orr-Ewing, 1962). In the USA, one of the earliest provenance trials, established in 1926, was for Pinus taeda ( Rogers and Ledig, 1996). One of the largest provenance trials established in North America included 140 seed sources of Pinus contorta planted in 60 locations in British Columbia, Canada ( Wang et al., 2010). Other tree species received less attention in the Pacific Northwest, but some provenance research was also undertaken on Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, P. sitchensis, Pinus lambertiana, Pinus monticola, Larix occidentalis, Thuja plicata and Tsuga heterophylla. P.taeda and P.

This difference has been explained by (i) the smaller effective population size of Y chromosomes causing stronger genetic drift,

p38 MAPK phosphorylation and (ii) haplotype clustering due to widespread patrilocality. Therefore, population structure, will be more pronounced in Y-chromosomal genetic databases and must be taken into account when database counts are used to quantify the evidential value of matches in forensic casework [38]. It has been shown, however, that so-called meta-populations may be constructed for Y-STRs that have low haplotypic variation among population groups within a meta-population, but large variation between meta-populations [39]. If necessary, such meta-populations can be defined ab initio using geography as a proxy of genetic relatedness, or by taking ethnic or linguistic data into account. For all five forensic marker sets studied here, samples of African ancestry were clearly separated genetically from all other continental meta-populations. Pairwise genetic distances, measured by RST, between Africa and the four non-African meta-populations were of similar magnitude.

These results confirm a previous study of 40,669 haplotypes from 339 populations typed only for the nine markers of the MHT panel [39]. Moreover, genetic distances between non-African meta-populations were comparatively small. While North and South America still differed to some degree in the first MDS component, Eastern and Western Asia showed notable differences only in the second component. However, since the study here lacked samples from large parts of Northern and Central Asia, reasonable inference about the population structure in Atezolizumab in vitro Asia

as a whole was not possible. Europe was the most intensively sampled continent in the present study and made up ∼60% of the overall sample size. A separate MDS analysis of samples of European residency and ancestry recapitulated the outcome of previous studies with smaller marker sets [32] and [40]. In particular, (-)-p-Bromotetramisole Oxalate a clear East–West divide became evident in the first component of the MDS analysis for all five forensic marker sets. Finland and some regions of the Balkans (Croatia, Bosnia–Herzegovina) showed consistently large differences to other European populations in the second MDS component. It must be emphasized that this population genetic analysis was based upon marker sets that were designed for forensic purposes, and that shared several markers. That all five sets yielded a similar picture of the geographic distribution of Y-STR haplotypes may therefore indicate that, in terms of population structure, the effects of markers included in the MHT (which are common to all five sets) dominate those of more mutable markers, such as PPY23-specific STRs DYS576, DYS570 and DYS481. Indeed, it has been shown recently that haplotypes comprising only rapidly mutating markers lack strong signals of population history (Ballantyne et al., submitted for publication).